The theoretical perspectives in sociology

The theoretical perspectives in sociology Sociology is the scientific study of society and human behavior. Websters Dictionary defines a perspective as a view of things in their true relationship or importance. Therefore, the sociological perspective provides viewpoints used to look at human behaviors and interactions as they relate to individuals and groups within a society. The sociological perspective stresses that to understand humans, not what is inside of them, but instead the external factors influencing them, should be observed. There are several theoretical perspectives in sociology that are used to understand social relationships and behaviors. The three theoretical perspectives discussed here are symbolic interactionism, functional analysis, and conflict theory. Symbolic interactionism is a microsociological theoretical approach that examines small-scale patterns of social interaction. Interactionists focus on how humans use symbols (signs, gestures, language) to develop views of the world, others, and themselves, as well as the importance of these symbols in social interaction and communication. Interactionists also believe that humans use these symbols to define the self, by comparing themselves to others and by constantly adjusting their view of themselves. Interactionists see reality as being negotiated based on shared agreements and perceptions about events and therefore reality is not stagnant but instead fluid, ever changing. Also, symbolic interactionists try to understand how an individual feels in order to understand why they act the way they do. For example, many female babies are killed in India. To understand why they are killed, Interactionists look at what makes people kill them. Raising a girl is very expensive in India. The meaning that Indians attach to the birth of a baby girl is that of a burden to the family. However, western cultures tend to think of every child as a gift and a blessing, no matter what gender. A doctor interviewed for a TV documentary said that she does not report families that kill their infant girls, because it is a generally accepted societal practice. A lot of people are poor and few can afford the cost associated with raising a girl. When getting married, the grooms family is paid a dowry for taking over the obligation of the bride. Getting back to the doctor, comparing her own conduct to that of others, she does not find anything wrong with not reporting those murders since others do not report them either. By her own admission, however, if others were to begin reporting the murders of infan t girls, she would then adjust her own conduct accordingly and also start to report the killings. The response to the killings depends on the meaning and significance that is attached to that death, and right now the doctor sees it as insignificant and not worth reporting. Functional analysts (or functionalists) view society as a whole, a complex system of integrated, interrelated parts that work together to keep society balanced. Each part of society has a certain function that it has to fulfill in order to meet the needs of the society in which it exists, thus functionalists stress order and stability. If a part of society is in dysfunction meaning it does not fulfill its role, the harmony is interrupted and the system is weakened. Through natural and gradual change, equilibrium has to be restored. To understand how society works functionalists examine how society operates, what needs must be met and how they are satisfied. They also examine what functions the various parts of society fulfill, and what the relationships between those parts are. Take, for example, the female fighter pilot Lt. Col. Martha McSally, who fought for women stationed in Arabic countries to not have to wear the traditional head covering (abaya) and the changing roles of women in the military. Female and male service members had certain functions. Women often worked as nurses or as clerks whereas men filled combat positions. Each gender had roles assigned and the system worked together in harmony until women were allowed to serve in positions that once were meant for male service members only. Through a gradual and natural process the roles of men and women in the military will have to be redefined until previous balance is restored. Another example would be Lt. Gov. Jane Swift of Massachusetts, who was pregnant when she entered office, and the functions of a mother and a politician. As a mother society expects her to care for her children and be there when her children need her. However, in her function as politician, she is expected to fully immerse herself in State politics. The functions of mothers and politicians are clearly defined, but, she is blurring the boundaries between the two functions and society (the system) has not yet adjusted to the changes associated with mothers of young children in politics. As more and more mothers with dependant children are entering politics, the system will have to adjust to their special needs, roles will have to be redefined for balance to be restored. Like functional analysis, conflict theory focuses on large-scale patterns of society. However, whereas functionalists believe that society is composed of groups that work together, conflict theorists believe those groups are in constant disagreement with each other over limited resources. Conflict theorists also believe that societies are constantly changing and that some groups have more power then others and that norms and values of a society are made by those with power in order to keep those without power down. Conflict theorists believe that the way to change society is to change its structure and not the individuals within that society. Going back to Lt. Gov. Jane Swift, power is seen as a result of her social position and not as a result of her character. As a politician she holds certain powers that conflict with those of non-politicians. For example, she excused her use of the state helicopter with her position as an important political figure. Non-politicians disagree with her right to use the helicopter, as they could not do that. In India men and women are in a constant battle for scarce resources. In the case of the infanticides the resources are power as well as money. The only solution to that conflict would be for society to change its structure by, for example, removing dowries as a condition of marriage or removing the need for expensive ceremonies for daughters. Since those with power and money see no need to change the current structure, the only way the change would ever happens is if poor Indians stood up and protested current practices. The same is true for the military. The problems that arose for Lt. Col. McSally while stationed in the Middle East came from inequality in the treatment of male and female service members. As a woman she was required to wear an abaya when leaving the base. This caused a problem since the abaya covered her from head to toe and therefore her social location, her rank as Lieutenant Colonel, was no longer visible to others. Her powers were diminished while male service members, even those of lower rank, did not have to remove or hide the signs of their social location within the military society, resulting in a struggle for power. To summarize the three major theoretical perspectives described above it can, in most general terms, be said that structural functionalists would focus on what is common practice in a certain society and would also analyze the function of symbols used to interact and communicate in that society; whereas symbolic interactionists would try to determine how the individuals of a certain society interpret their environment or what effect others have on the development of an individuals self image; and conflict theorists would look at power differences between various groups of a society, where they come from and what effect they have on that society.

Santiago as a Hemmingway Code Hero in The Old Man and the Sea :: essays research papers

Ernest Hemingway had a specific type of character in each and every one of his works of literature. These characters were called the Hemingway Code Heroes. Hemingway Code Heros followed a strict code of behaviors which allowed them to live their life to the fullest. These Heros lived simple lives without all the luxuries that others had. They concentrate on the problem at hand and do not get swayed by outside events. Avoiding intense personal relationships allows the Hero to stay focused. In The Old Man And The Sea, Santiago is considered the Hemingway Code Hero for many reasons. Santiago lived an extremely simple life, the life of a fisherman. Although sometimes he wished for some of the modern conveniences others had, he was able to do without them. Other fishermen had radios to pass the time while all Santiago had were his thoughts and sometimes the boy. The old man asked for the help of no one, for he did fine without the others. Santiago learned how to make due with the supplies that he had. On the boat while he is battling the mighty fish, he is able to deal with limited food and drink. He realizes he may be out at sea for a long time, so he rationalizes his supplies. Santiago copes with what he has. The sail on his boat is torn and tattered, consisting of countless rags stitched together. Mueller 2 Although a nicer sail would have been nice he knew that he could get by with the one he has. Santiago displayed a great deal of grace while under the pressure of catching his great adversary. While battling the marlin he always keeps his eye on the goal, and figures out new ways to get through the tight spots. Even when it seem that all hope is lost, he continues to persevere, so he may achieve his goal. When he is out at sea his hands cramp, and it looks as if he has to give up the fish, but he decides to stick with it in a hope that he may strive through the area of difficulty. His hands finally free up and he continues on his mission, just glad that he did not give up. Sharks attack the marlin on his voyage back to his small town, he works his hardest to keep them away. Santiago finds unique ways to keep them away.

Marxist Criticism Is Always Concerned with the Class Struggle in History.

The main aim of Marxism is to bring about a classless society. Thus the reason I chose to study George Orwell's Animal Farm is because its characters share (originally) this same ambition. Animal Farm represents the oppressed masses rising up and forming a ‘classless' society of their own. While offering a critique of communism in general, the book also serves to act as a mirror of Soviet Russia under Stalin. As reflected throughout the text, it was no secret Orwell considered Russia, and consequently Communism, a counter-revolutionary force that would inevitably become corrupted by greed and power. Indeed, perhaps in order to go further in offering a Marxist reading of the text, it is necessary to pass judgement on the author and the epoch in which the book was written. In doing so, I hope to show just how progressive (or anti-progressive) the book is. From almost the very beginning of this book it possible to see Orwell's criticism of Karl Marx, displayed through ‘Old Major'. Many of the characters in the book symbolize real political figures. Old Major' is very much like Karl Marx, at times he appears single minded and unrealistic. Before his death ‘Old Major' gave an unwavering speech stating no animal should ever â€Å"touch money, or engage in trade† . This is clearly a direct criticism of Karl Marx's naivety, as shown later through Orwell's narration: Never to have any dealings with human beings, never to engage in trade, never to make use of money – had these not been among the earliest resolutions passed at the first triumphant meeting when Jon es was expelled? It soon becomes clear that ‘Animalism' (which bears a striking resemblance to communism) is a system that cannot be maintained the way originally intended. The morals that, at first, rule on the farm become controls. The animals effectively split themselves into ‘classes'. This class splitting becomes accepted as normal through a process of Hegemony . As described by Raymond Williams, hegemony is a form of social control that becomes accepted as ‘normal' after becoming the predominant influence. Indeed the notion of hegemony is closely related to a concept developed by the French Marxist Louis Althusser. Althusser's theory of Ideological Structures becomes hugely relevant when applied to Orwell's political satire. These Ideological structures are effectively institutions that prevent the masses causing a revolution. In the case of religion for instance, a Marxist would suggest that it prevents a revolution by imposing the notion that you will be rewarded in the ‘after-life', for all you put up with in this life. The manor in which religion is depicted in Animal Farm leads one to think that Orwell was not a particularly religious man, and in this instance at least he would have agreed with Marx's views on the subject. Here religion is portrayed through the aptly named Moses, the raven. Moses refuses to listen to the rebellious speech given by Old Major, though later preaches about a magical place for all animals called ‘Sugar Candy Mountain'. In Animal Farm the pigs work hard to convince the other animals that ‘Sugar Candy Mountain' (heaven) does not exist, though, significantly, this is done before the rebellion takes place. This shows a slightly hypocritical side to Marx's work because after the rebellion takes place the pigs are keen to enforce their own ideology on to the other animals (proletariat), leading to the important question ‘Is the will of the people also transferred to their leader†Ã¢â‚¬Ëœ In this instance the answer seems to be a resounding ‘No'. However on second reading, it could be argued that, up until the very climax of the book, the animals actually get what they want. One gets the impression that in offering a true Marxist critique of the book, it is actually the case that the animals do achieve their top priority; ousting man. In this sense they do become free (from man at least) and it is only their subsequent inability to grasp the prospect of equality that leads to another regime of dictatorship. Although at the same time it cannot be argued that the majority of the animals (or the ‘masses' as they appropriately refer to themselves) are treated fairly. Evidence of this can be found in the extract of the book I have largely chosen to focus my attentions on (appendix one), where from the outset the animals, in my opinion, are treat worse than ever before. As a result of the revolution that took place on the farm the animals, excluding the pigs, presume that the luxuries that were once taken away from them, such as milk and apples, would be shared equally among the group, however this is not the case: (p. 23) You do not imagine, I hope, that we pigs are doing this in a spirit of selfishness and privilege. Many of us actually dislike milk and apples†¦ milk and apples (this has been proven by science, comrades) contain substances absolutely necessary to the well being of the pig. We pigs are brainworkers. (Appendix one) Consequently the animals find themselves in a state of confusion. Their situation, they are constantly reassured, is better than before. They now live under their original ideal of animalism, they are told. This can be closely related to the theory of ‘Carbonarism', which was identified as having been created under the Italian Communist Party (1921-43). The theory is largely based around the recurring tendency to distract the masses from the ‘real' (or perhaps relevant) problems that were occurring under communist rule. In reality the animals are living under a harsh dictatorship, under the veil of animalism. Engels refers to this as an illusion of democracy. By creating this illusion of democracy the ruling class (Napoleon/Stalin) can ensure they stay in power, while everything will stay ‘natural' to the proletariat. Indeed this illusion of democracy is further emphasized when the animals are asked questions by the pigs; questions to which there can be only one possible reply. In a sense the rhetorical questions act as a tool to reinforce the false class-consciousness: It is for your sake that we pigs drink that milk and eat those apples. Do you know what would happen if we pigs failed our duty? Jones would come back! Surely comrades†¦ surely there is no one among you who wants to see Jones come back? (p. 23) Althusser calls this Interpellation. A process where by a person is made to feel like they have a choice, when actually the ‘choice' does not exist. Peter Barry offers an example: ‘You can have any colour you like†¦ as long as it's black' Animal Farm can also be linked to another theory. The German philosopher Friedrich Hegel offered the notion that contrasting ideas can be bring about new situations, this is known as the dialectic. Thus, a process whereby ‘contradictions are inherent to its structure' becomes particularly relevant when discussing Animal Farm. Hegel's dialectic was constructed around three key concepts: the thesis, the antithesis and the resolution. What Karl Marx did was effectively reinterpret Hegel's work and relate it to his own concepts based on class struggle. Thus, Hegel's thesis becomes Marx's ‘the way things are'; Hegel's antithesis became ‘the conflict' and the resolution, or the ideal, communism. This process is known as ‘dialectical Marxism'. However, what Hegel or Marx failed to anticipate was the collapse of their ideal, once it became accepted (‘the way things are). Indeed, I contend that Hegel's dialectic was a process fuelled by repetition. In other words, it will continue a ‘natural' process through the stages until the resolution is reached and when the resolution fails, it will start again. This undoubtedly is the case in Animal Farm, where once the animals achieve the goal, they slip back into Hegel's thesis. In terms of offering a Marxist reading, the era in which the book was written and, significantly, published is very important and relevant to Orwell's satire. Animal Farm was written in 1943 (the end of communist Russia), but not published until after the end of the Second World War in 1945. Indeed at such a historical moment in time, I believe that a Marxist would see Orwell as a product of the society in which he was raised, and therefore the book becomes the ‘bi-product'. Too add weight to this argument, the dominant ideologies at work at the time the book was written suggest Orwell had capitalist ideals at heart. However, George Orwell was an active socialist. He did strongly oppose the views of Karl Marx and was not impressed with the idea of communism, but he was equally opposed to the idea of capitalism. Therefore I believe that Animal Farm should not be regarded as the ‘bi-product' of the distinctly capitalist society Orwell was a part of. Instead I argue that Animal Farm is the consequence of such a system in which Orwell was expected to conform. This would perhaps explain why it took so long to get published; society (capitalists and Marxists) was weary.

The Leadership Of A Servant Leader - 885 Words

Servant leadership is crucial in any form of leadership. Some would even argue that servant leadership is the best form of leadership. When the topic of servant leadership arises, there is one name that stands out amongst the greats: Mahatma Gandhi. Gandhi was known for his quiet, servantly form of leadership that had an immense impact on the world. It is said that Gandhi was the greatest servant leader in history, second only to Christ. In order to see the leadership of this man, the story of his life must be outlined. Mahatma Gandhi (born Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi) was born on October 2nd, 1869 in Porbandar, India. His mother, Putibai, was a very religious woman. His father, Karamchand, was the chief minister of Porbandar. Gandhi was brought up in the Jainism faith, focusing on fasting, meditation non-violence, vegetarianism, and treating all living things with respect and life. Gandhi was married to Kasturba Makanji when they were both thirteen through an arranged marr iage. Gandhi worked greatly with the civil rights movement. He was once thrown off a train for being Indian, and instead of lashing out, decided to react in a civil and non-violent manner. From then on, he vowed to fight color segregation. Gandhi became part of the Natal Indian Congress while living in South Africa. Using this political movement, Gandhi pushed his ideas of non-violent civil protest, which helped him to oppose the introduction of registration for all Indians in SouthShow MoreRelatedServant Leadership As A Servant Leader778 Words   |  4 PagesATT executive, coined the term servant leadership. Slightly more than three decades later, the concept of servant leadership is increasingly viewed as an ideal leadership form in which organizations are aspiring to achieve. Many people think of servant and leader as being opposite roles, when in fact they can coexist, and more and more executives are looking toward this new way of leading. 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